Beginners Drawing Blog

Beginner Drawing: Printmaking: An Introduction

2008-09-11T12:29:00Z

Those daunted by the skills and money needed to operate a large, bulky printing press can still explore a variety of printmaking techniques without the use of a press.

by Naomi Ekperigin

Winged Horse
by Gail Ayres, 2003, monotype, 30 x 22.
Collection the artist.

From etchings to the words of a daily newspaper, for centuries printmaking has enabled people to make copies of images and text and disseminate ideas. Fine-art printmaking in particular has a long tradition, and many contemporary artists have taken up printmaking as a means of reproducing their work. For others, printmaking is the end in itself; the directness and relatively quick process is often what makes the medium appealing. “When I’m doing painting, I often work on it for a long time,” says artist Mili Weiss. “With printmaking, the results are immediate, which is satisfying.”

There are five basic methods of printmaking: relief, monotype, intaglio, silkscreen, and lithography. The matrix, or ink-holding surface, is different for each one. In relief printing (linoleum and woodcut, for example) the ink sits on the top surface of a plate or block that has been carved. In intaglio (drypoint, etching, and engraving, and the like) the recessed areas take up the ink. In silkscreen (a stencil printing technique) there is a hole cut in the matrix and ink is pushed through it. In planographic printing (such as lithography and monotype) the matrix is flat, and the part to be printed is treated to hold ink; the untreated parts repel it. Many artists interested in learning printmaking are often daunted by the notion of using heavy, large presses. The size and price can make them less than ideal, especially if one merely wants to dabble. Luckily, there are a variety of methods for creating relief prints and monotypes that do not require the use of a press and yet still yield highly finished, top-quality works of art.

Relief Printing

Relief printing is the most ancient form of printmaking, and the most accessible, even for those without a press. Both artists and nonartists have probably created a relief print without even knowing it—one’s fingerprint, created at birth, reveals the essence of relief printmaking. In this process, the raised part of the surface catches the ink while the depressions do not catch pigment. With this process, paper is pressed against the inked block or plate to transfer the image. Artists can use a wide range of tools to transfer the image onto the paper, including a barens, a wooden spoon, a doorknob, or even the side of one’s fist. Relief printing offers a directness and simplicity that makes it ideal for printmakers of all levels. Linoleum and wood are the most common surfaces used with this technique. “Linoleum is a great surface to start out with,” says artist Joseph Sanchez. “With wood, you have to be aware of the grain and make sure you carve in the direction of the grain in order to get smooth lines. Learning this takes time and experimentation, and can be difficult.” Linoleum is inexpensive and durable, and has a smooth surface without grain or direction. There are also several other options, such as cork, plastic, cardboard, and all sorts of natural and man-made objects. “When I taught printmaking to beginners, I let them use various odds and ends, such as bottle tops, twigs, and leaves, so that they could see the different possibilities printmaking offers,” says Weiss.

Artist Julia Ayres, who has published several books on printmaking techniques and teaches several workshops annually, provides a four-step process for creating a simple relief-type print:

Ayres' four-step process for
creating a block print,
from the book Printmaking Techniques
(Watson Guptill Publications,
New York, New York).

Prep. Draw a simple black-and-white design that will be the size of your print (in Ayres’ example a piece of rubber acts as her relief block). If the pencil drawing on the paper is placed face down on the block and rubbed with a spoon, it will transfer the image onto the rubber surface.

1. Use a V-shaped cutting tool (Ayres used one from a Speedball linocut tool set) to cut away areas that will not take up the ink.

2. The raised surface is then rolled with black block-printing ink with a brayer.

3. A thin sheet of paper is placed on top of the inked image and is finger-pressed to make the print; other tools can also be used depending on an artist’s preference.

4. The paper is slowly lifted away, revealing the printed image. You will notice that the cut block is the reverse image of the print. The print reads as the original image, which is why the original image is transferred to the block face-down, creating a mirror image of the original.

“Learning the importance of this reversal is a challenge a printmaker encounters,” says Ayres. “If the image is not reversed, the print can be ruined. For example, letters will print backwards or a left-handed baseball pitcher will throw with his right hand.”

Monotype

Stretch
by Julia Ayres, 2003, ink, 7 x 11.

This three-minute gesture drawing
from the live model was quickly
developed by removing ink
from a dark field. This is the
most basic and spontaneous
way to work in monotype.

Monotype is also ideal for beginners, as it is inexpensive and does not require the use of a press. As the name suggests, monotypes are a way of producing one unique print, as opposed to multiple images. Oil- and water-based inks can all be used to make monotypes, with each yielding different results. “It depends on how you prefer to clean up,” notes Weiss. “Water-based ink is easier to clean, but you get a much richer print with oil-based inks. I like oil-based inks, but good ventilation is recommended, as mineral spirits and other solvents are toxic.” There are three methods for creating a monotype: drawing into the ink, painting with printing ink, and drawing on the back of the paper. With each method, you can use your hand to imprint your image, and all three allow an artist to create unique and visually stunning effects.

Drawing into the ink is the easiest way to create a monotype. First, squeeze a large dollop of ink onto a smooth, non-porous surface, such as a sheet of Plexiglas or plastic. Using a brayer, roll the ink out evenly and thinly on the surface. Using any tool that will make a mark, draw your design into the ink (sticks, palette knives, even your fingers will do). Place printing paper over your design, and firmly and evenly rub the back of the paper using the side of your fist. When you feel your ink has fully transferred onto the paper, slowly peel the paper up off of the surface. Determining the density of the print before peeling back the paper comes with practice, but you can peel up portions to determine areas that need to be reworked. Using your thumb or fingernails, you can create localized areas of pressure.

Painting with printing ink can work best for those who prefer to adopt a painterly approach. In this method, your image is painted directly onto the surface, and paper is placed on top and firmly pressed with one’s hand, fist, a wooden spoon or a smooth stone. This can also be done with a press, but when doing so, the surface should not be glass or any other material that cannot withstand heavy pressure. When using one’s hand to apply pressure, a smooth, lightweight paper responds best. Newsprint can be purchased cheaply in large quantities for those interested in experimenting.

Three Fish
by Julia Ayres, 2003, ink, 8 x 10.
Collection the artist.

It is also easy to experiment with using multiple colors to create vivid and dynamic monotypes. “Akura intaglio inks are water-based and readily lend themselves to process-color layering,” says Ayres. “These inks print on dry paper, making them easy to work with in a home studio without a press.” Ayres also recommends using a soft, absorbent, waterleaf paper with a smooth surface, such as Arches 88. To create multicolored images, first apply a thin layer of the first color evenly on the plate, and remove it from the areas that you want to be a different color. Rags, brushes, tissues, and cotton swabs can be used to lift and manipulate color on the plate. Then, print the image as outlined above, and wash the plate to remove the color. Then, apply the next color, wiping it off of the areas that are to be a different color. The process is repeated until each color is in place.

The methods outlined above are a few of the many ways one can begin to explore printmaking. “The most important tool for entering any art field is information,” stresses Ayres. “As a beginning printmaker, I bought a lot of books and scoured the local library for information.” Now, the internet can also serve as a valuable resource, and artists can buy DVDs, bringing the workshop experience into their own homes. When exploring printmaking, one should approach it with the same openness as any other medium. “Don’t be afraid to start in any medium,” Ayres says. “Artists of all levels must experiment and explore new options in order to truly master a medium.”

Naomi Ekperigin is the editorial assistant for American Artist.

Beginner Drawing Logic: The Right Drawing Tools for the Job

2008-09-11T09:30:00Z

Carefully choosing the right drawing tools for a given subject gives a draftsman a tremendous advantage.

by Bob Bahr

CLOCKWISE FROM TOP
A bottle of walnut ink
and a bamboo pen, four colors
of Conté crayons (bistre,
sanguine, black, and white), four
colors of colored pencils,
a graphite pencil, and a piece of
vine charcoal.

It's true that a talented artist could make a successful drawing of virtually anything using almost any material. But carefully choosing the right drawing tools for a given subject gives any draftsman a tremendous advantage.

Ask yourself some questions before you choose your drawing device. Are hard edges or soft edges important to this drawing? Does the subject beg for high-contrast treatment? Is color crucial to its depiction? Which mark-making material best suits the proper scale for the drawing? Do you want the image to have a spontaneous feel, or a more finished look?

The surface you choose plays an almost equal role in determining how your completed drawing will look. Smooth surfaces, like hot-pressed paper or Bristol board, will wonderfully showcase highly detailed linework. Heavily textured paper, including pastel boards, will selectively pull off the pigment of your drawing instrument in a possibly charming, possibly distracting fashion. Toned paper should be chosen carefully to suit the overall color temperature and value of the subject.

Here's a quick look at six common drawing materials.

Beggar Holding a Rosary and a Cap
by Guercino (Giovanni Francesco Barbieri), ca. 1620, oiled black chalk heightened with white on brown paper, 15? x 10?.

The smooth-flowing chalk allowed the artist to work quickly and capture the gesture. The neutral value of the paper let him bring out a few key highlights with some white chalk. Note the texture of the paper showing through in the shaded area on the right. Although chalk is easily smudged, this drawing has survived unscathed for nearly 400 years, which should allay any fears about the medium's archival nature.

Madeleine Ingres With the Artist
by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, 1830, graphite, 7? x 5¼.

Ingres' portraiture epitomizes the fine lines possible with a graphite pencil.

Graphite-??Fairly reversible with most types of erasers, somewhat difficult for making high-contrast areas, excellent for creating sharp edges and fine details, exhibits a reflective sheen when applied heavily, inexpensive, very archival although slightly susceptible to smudging.

Charcoal-??Very reversible, supplies rich dark tones and high contrast, encourages a spontaneous look and soft edges, extremely inexpensive, very susceptible to smudging-??spray fixative is recommended.

Conté, and other colored, chalklike crayons-Reversible in varying degrees depending on the wax content, offers a traditional look, excellent for both details and quick expressive marks, slightly more expensive. The black, sanguine, sepia, white, and bistre shades of Conté crayons produced some of the most sublime images in the history of drawing.

Colored pencil-Fairly reversible, especially the water-soluble brands. Some of the waxier pigments are less erasable. Available in a wide range of hues, excellent for detailed work, relatively archival, inexpensive-but collecting all the available colors could add up. Some artists stick to one color, using it as a more controllable substitute for traditional colored or chalklike crayons.


Child at Water's Edge by William Morris Hunt, ca. 1877, charcoal on buff wove paper, 9¾ x 15¾. Charcoal is excellent for both creating tone and drawing crisp lines.	Una by Benjamin West, ca. 1771, pen-and-ink, 10¼ x 12½. Collection Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut. There's little chance for erasure with ink, so each line must be confidently laid down. The result is an appealing, high-contrast image.

Pen-and-ink-Not particularly reversible, encourages a free and confident hand, produces high-contrast images, allows precision linework, relatively inexpensive.

Choosing the right tool for the job will likely make your drawing better in addition to making the drawing process much easier, so take a moment to consider your materials before you dive in.

Beginner: Drawing Masters

2008-09-11T09:27:00Z

As one studies drawing, it can be useful to learn from masters that came before in order to gain inspiration and find ways of approaching challenges that arise. For those discovering drawing, there are several master draftsmen one can learn from.

by Naomi Ekperigin

Portrait of Madame d'Haussonville
by Jean-Auguste-
Dominique Ingres, ca. 1842, graphite, 9 3/16 x 7¾.
Collection The Fogg Art Museum
at Harvard University,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.

“I believe drawing is the foundation of all art,” says artist Mary Reilly. She is not alone in this sentiment. Many artists believe that drawing skills are crucial to working in any medium, even if drawing is not one’s primary interest. From early on there were artists who valued drawings as completed works in their own right. These artists further elevated the medium and demonstrated the breadth of opportunities available to those who wished to explore drawing further.

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres

French Neoclassical painter Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780–1867) was a born draftsman. From an early age, his father nurtured his skills in drawing, and at 17 Ingres went to Paris to study under Jacques-Louis David, who was Napoleon’s official “art czar” during the French Revolution. Although deeply influenced by Renaissance painter Raphael, and a gifted painter himself, it is Ingres' drawings and portraits for which he is best known.

Ingres moved to Italy in 1808 after winning the Grand Prix de Rome, France’s top art scholarship. There, he honed his craft, inspired by the work of Old Masters. To support himself and his wife, he accepted painting commissions from the state and completed hundreds of graphite portraits for tourists, traveling dignitaries, and wealthy émigrés. These small portraits are “great works of art, catching in a miracle of talent, features, poses, costumes, atmosphere, and character,” wrote art historian Stephen Longstreet. “The people are real. They breathe and exist solidly on earth.”

Sheet Studies of Women for The Turkish Bath
by Jean-Auguste-
Dominique Ingres, ca. 1830,
pen, brown ink, and graphite
on two joined sheets, 6¾ x 4¾.
Collection the Louvre, Paris, France.

The ability to capture reality was due to his technical skill and familiarity with anatomy. With such innate knowledge of the human form, the artist could properly render drapery in a way that followed the shape of the body in every crease and fold. The artist’s ability to capture a likeness came from his devotion to exactitude, which he developed through drawing. Ingres was a compulsive drawer, urging students to draw with their eyes when they could not do so with a pencil. For his painted portraits and murals, he sometimes made hundreds of preparatory drawings. He seemed to find this step of the process more satisfying than the actual painting of the murals, which he sometimes abandoned. “The stages were: studying from life, wrenching truth from experience, squaring, enlarging, transporting onto canvas, going back, if necessary to the model for this or that detail,” wrote Avigdor Arikha in J.A.D. Ingres: Fifty Life Drawings From the Musée Ingres at Montauban, the catalogue for an exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. “Asking the Count de Pastoret for his gloves or going back to Madame Moitessier’s left arm, drawing it life-size so as to transpose it directly onto canvas, going back to it again and again. This is when Ingres got bogged down. It was an over-elaborate—almost obsessive—proceeding, the aim of which was to get nearer to the truth of the matter.”

Artists of all levels can learn from Ingres’ attention to detail. His work ethic was admirable, and he created drawings that were both technically pleasing and emotionally resonant. “Of all the masters I’ve studied, I have most enjoyed the work of Ingres,” says Reilly. “Ingres’ preferred materials were the sharply pointed graphite pencil and smooth white paper. He believed color to be no more than an accessory to drawing. To him, drawing was not just the line. It was the expression, the inner form, the composition, and the modeling.” It is this view that has influenced 20th-century modern art and generations of artists from Degas to Dinnerstein.

Seated Nude Woman
by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, 22 x 15.
Collection the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York,
New York.

Pierre-Paul Prud’hon

Like Ingres, Pierre-Paul Prud'hon (1758–1823) was acclaimed as a painter, but drawing was the foundation for his work. Known in his day for his allegorical and mythological paintings, it is now his figure drawings that inspire and stun viewers. As an art student at the Dijon Academy in the early 1780s, Prud’hon devoted himself to the rigorous training in drawing that was deemed necessary for all those who hoped for a successful career as an artist. Académies—figure studies drawn from the live model—were the way in which students honed their skills, completing hundreds of these drawings by the time they were ready to pursue their professions. The process took years and weeded out a number of aspirants, either due to lack of dedication or talent. While this rigorous and lengthy training may seem cumbersome to today’s students, these figure drawings were crucial to artists, many of whom created these studies throughout their career for ideas and practice.

Académie of a Seated Man
by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon,
black and white chalk on blue paper, 14 9/17 x 10?.
Collection Museé Baron Martin,
Gray, France.

Prud’hon was one such artist, and more than his contemporaries, he clung to the académies throughout his career. What is even more noteworthy, perhaps, is that Prud’hon came to favor these figure drawings over completed paintings, even as his career advanced. By 1788, the artist had developed a signature style of figures drawn in colored chalk on tinted paper. The drawings are often built up in several layers, including hatching and broad passages of toning and stumping. By mixing lines, tones, and various techniques, Prud’hon presented artists with the full range of expressive possibilities of chalk and paper. “Prud’hon’s studies convey a strong sense of emotion,” says Reilly. “His marks seem loose and free, but they are perfectly placed.” Agrees artist Kenneth Procter, “Prud’hon completed some drawings where the core of the shadow runs like a stripe down the whole length of a pose, exposing every nuance of muscle—it is absolutely stunning.” With his knowledge of the human body so deeply ingrained, he could focus on his subject and imbue him or her with life, marking quickly and responding immediately to his own thoughts without worry about anatomy or verisimilitude.

At an early age, Prud’hon added “Paul” to his name, in honor of Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640), who was also a master draftsman. Prud’hon shared the artist's love of the human figure and in-depth knowledge of anatomy, but that is where their similarities end. Rubens was a proponent of the Baroque style, known for its emphasis on color, lavish detail, and dynamic movement. Prud’hon, on the other hand, stripped away dramatic motion and focused on the way light moved across forms. However, what Prud’hon did learn from his predecessor is the importance of constantly creating new work, regardless of style. Rubens was one of the most prolific and diverse artists of his time, with an output that included altarpieces, history paintings, portraits, and landscapes, as well as book illustrations and architectural designs.


The Assumption of the Virgin by Peter Paul Rubens, ca. 1612, brown ink and brown wash, white body color, and black chalk on brown paper, 11? x 9?. Collection Albertina Museum Vienna, Austria.	Seated Young Woman With Raised Arms by Peter Paul Rubens, 1631–1632, black and red chalk with white heightening, 16 x 19 11/16. Collection Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin, Germany.

Peter Paul Rubens

In addition, the artist produced hundreds of drawings, which played a variety of supporting roles in his work from the very beginning of his career. As a young artist, he spent much of his time copying masterworks; a move to Italy in 1600 shifted his subject matter to the work of the Renaissance masters. The purpose of drawing works by Titian, Michelangelo, and Raphael was not simply to learn. As artist-instructor John A. Parks notes, “It was actually an attempt to ransack the available iconography and compositions so that he could amass a personal library of imagery for later use. What the artist most valued in these drawings was not their personal calligraphy or quality of rendering, but simply their design information.”

Rubens used this image library to serve as inspiration for the large altarpieces he was commissioned to create. He would begin these large works with a preliminary drawing in black or brown chalk, then he would create an oil sketch. After this, the artist returned to drawing, making larger pieces from live models using black chalk. This larger drawing allowed him to include more detail and anatomical accuracy, and infuse his subject with a vivacity that Baroque artists were proud of.

Although Rubens probably thought little of his drawings, artists today can glean much from his preparatory works. His drawings served to enrich his paintings and helped him in every stage of the process. When he finally put oil to canvas, he had a clear vision and was certain of how to execute it. Through drawing, Rubens expanded his visual vocabulary, enabling him to create hundreds of brilliant works.

Woman With Dead Child
by Käthe Kollwitz, 1903, etching.
Collection the National Gallery of
Art, Washington, DC.

Käthe Kollwitz

German painter, printmaker, and sculptor Käthe Kollwitz (1867–1945), may be better known for her subject matter than her skill. Her etchings, lithographs, and drawings were primarily of the working class people she saw around her, and she presented viewers with moving accounts of human suffering and struggle. Her deep emotional connection to her subjects enabled her to create art that still resonates with audiences today, and can inspire artists who want to tackle personal and/or political subject matter. “I was taken by Kollwitz’s early work and the depth of form she got from her copious linework,” says artist and instructor Dan Gheno. “I also appreciated the emotional strength in her work. She taught me that I could go much further than the surface form if I looked inside myself.”

Self-Portrait
by Käthe Kollwitz, 1924, lithograph.

Kollwitz often worked in cycles, tackling the topic of historical uprisings and changes. The first of these series was The Weavers, which consisted of three lithographs and three etchings based on German playwright Gerhart Hauptmann’s dramatization of the failed revolt of 1842. Kollwitz’s works weren’t a literal illustration of the historical facts or Hauptmann’s adaptation; instead, she focused on the misery, hope, and fortitude of the workers. When these pieces were exhibited to the public in 1898, the artist garnered wide acclaim, and it is still one of her most famous projects. This was later followed by her series Peasants’ War (1902-1908), based on the German peasants’ rebellion of 1522-1525. By the time of this series, the artist was considered one of the most important German graphic artists of her time.

In addition to varying her subject matter, Kollwitz explored a range of techniques in printmaking with these series, including photo-etching, intaglio, and color lithographic printing. At this time, she simplified her work, leaving behind her highly detailed realist approach in favor of a narrative of emotion. It is this commitment to humanist themes and an emotional connection that helps distinguish Kollwitz's work.

Portrait of Igor Stravinsky
by Pablo Picasso, 1920,
graphite, Collection Museé Picasso,
Paris, France.

Pablo Picasso

Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) is an artist of international renown, one who lived in Europe during turbulent times and used his art to interpret the rapid, and, at times violent, changes that took place around him. While the artist completed hundreds of paintings for which he is well known, his drawings are at the core of his work. “The heart of Picasso’s evolution as an artist and icon lies in his draftsmanship—that’s where his experimentation and visual breakthroughs were generated,” says artist and teacher Lisa Dinhofer. An artist with profound knowledge of the fundamentals and extensive academic training, Picasso was able to deconstruct a subject, rendering it in the fewest lines necessary, and arrive at its essence. “It takes the detailed knowledge of a master draftsman to portray an object in its simplest form,” says Dinhofer. “Not with a softened Conté mark, not with a cross-hatched buildup for volume, not in layered shades of graphite to model an area, but a direct line conveying all form and space.”

Nusch Eluard
by Pablo Picasso, 1938,
charcoal and graphite on canvas.

Picasso’s linework indicated the inner and outer forms of his subject, and he could fill the picture plane by removing volumetric details. This can be seen in portraits such as Max Jacob, Portrait of Erik Satie, and Helena Rubenstein. Looking at his experimentation with line and shapes, artists can understand how Picasso forced viewers to see objects in new ways, and still pushes our limits today. His masterpiece Guernica, created in 1937, embodies the artist’s changing theories and experimentation with line. As Dinhofer notes, “The composition is based solely on the juxtaposition of space and line. The interior and landscape depicted are flattened, pushing every figure to the foreground. The result is an overpowering assault … accomplished with a bold, unbroken line, cut-out shapes, and a compressed picture plane.”

Artists of all levels can look at the work of Picasso and learn something new at various points in their artistic exploration, just as the artist himself changed over time. “Picasso is often described as fundamentally a draftsman,” says Procter. “His drawings are virtuosic, amazingly varied in technique, and fabulously, slyly inventive.” Picasso deconstructed his subject matter to the bare essence of line, showing viewers and artists that drawing truly is the foundation of art.

Naomi Ekperigin is the editorial assistant for American Artist.

Beginner Drawing Logic: Getting Depth Into Your Drawings

2008-07-07T12:09:00Z

Here are some ways to give depth to your drawings.

by Bob Bahr

A Grove of Pine Trees With a Ruined Tower
by Claude Lorrain, 1638â??1639, pen and brown ink with brown, gray, and pink wash on white paper, 12â? x 8Â¾. Collection the British Museum, London, England.

Notice how the contrast in the bark of the near trees on the left is more marked than the barkâ??s contrast in the middle-ground trees. Claude also brought the near hill in front of the middle-ground hill to help push that second clump of trees back. This image is currently on view through August 12 as part of the exhibition â??Claude Lorrainâ??The Painter as Draftsman: Drawings From the British Museum,â? at the National Gallery of Art, in Washington, DC.

A View of the Aventine
by Claude Lorrain, 1673, black chalk, pen
and brown ink with brown wash on white paper, 79â?16 x 10â??. Collection The British Museum, London, England.

Claude employed repoussoir elements (the column on the right and the trees on the left) to suggest depth, and he also overlapped the foreground hillock to push the two figures into the middle ground. Elements were rendered with increasing lightness as they recede into the background. This image is currently on view through August 12 as part of the exhibition â??Claude Lorrainâ??The Painter as Draftsman: Drawings From the British Museum,â? at The National Gallery of Art, in Washington, DC.

A sense of depth makes a drawing much more convincing. The Old Masters used a number of devices to give depth to their drawings and paintings. Here are a few.

Vermeer is just one artist who effectively used repoussoir to create the illusion of depth in his art. â??Repoussoirâ? is a French verb meaning â??to push back,â? and in drawing compositions this often means placing a large figure or another prominent element in the extreme foregroundâ??often on the left, where it is quickly read by viewers as their eyes scan from left to right, moving on quickly to the focal point after having instantly registered the sense of depth suggested. In Vermeerâ??s The Artistâ??s Studio, for example, the artist uses a curtain on the left to create the sense of space.

Obviously, repoussoirâ??s success is attributable to the fact that objects lessen in size the farther they are from the viewer. But many drawing problems in compositions are attributable to issues of scale stemming from this evident physical law. Careful attention to the rules of perspective will ensure that objects are diminishing in size at the proper rate as they recede into the distance.

Objects in the distance are also lighter, less defined, and seem more tightly clustered than similar objects in the middle ground and foreground. Elements appear lighter and less detailed because light, the vehicle for visual information, is affected by Earthâ??s atmosphere. Even under very clear conditions, light (and thus, the appearance of all distant objects) is altered by the optical phenomenon known as Rayleigh scattering. The more atmosphere between the viewer and the object, the more pronounced the effect. Named after Lord Rayleigh, the 19th-century physicist who discovered it, this effect is caused by particles in the air that are smaller in size than a wavelength of light, thus scattering or defusing the light. (Incidentally, the smaller the wavelength of light, the more it is scattered, which explains how our eyes interpret the blue of the sky. The skyâ??s blue color is caused by sunlight scattering off molecules of the atmosphere. Because blue light has a very short wavelength, it is scattered more readily, and thus blue light is more visible in our atmosphere.) Light is further diffused by larger particles, such as those of smoke, pollution, and fog, and the effect of these factors (called Mie scattering after German physicist Gustav Mie) is more pronounced closer to the horizon than at the zenith of the sky because these heavier particles sink closer to the ground.

Medea: The Marriage of Jason and Creusa
by Rembrandt, 1648, etching, 9Â½ x 7. Collection the Louvre, Paris, France.

Note how the figure in shadow on the lower right is larger than the figures of the wedding couple, an example of repoussoir. The couple overlap the retaining wall in the middle ground, which overlaps the line of spectators, who overlap the main supporting pillar, which overlaps the farthest reaches of the churchâ??all contributing to a powerful sense of depth. Even in the black-and-white, linear medium of an etching, Rembrandt manages to suggest a lessening of contrast in elements as they recede into the background.

The Artistâ??s Studio
by Vermeer, 1665â??1667, oil, 47Â¼ x 39Â½. Collection Kunsthistorisches Museum,
Vienna, Austria.

Note how the prominent curtain in the left foreground helps create a sense of depth in the composition, an example of repoussoir.

Artists refer to this overall phenomenon as aerial (or atmospheric) perspective, which is confusing because it has nothing to do with perspective of scale, the usual meaning of the term perspective in discussions of art and composition. (None other than Leonardo gave aerial perspective its name, which probably has something to do with its perseverance.) To suggest the effect of aerial perspective caused by the atmosphere, make the contrasts in value in objects less defined in the far distance. That is, draw features in objects in the distance using marks that are close in value. The atmosphere also softens and blurs the contours of distant objects a little bitâ??but keep in mind that the main reason their edges are less noticeable is because of the reduction in contrast between their light and dark planes. The important thing is to lighten their tone overall in comparison to similar objects in the middle ground and foreground.

When working in color, incorporate blue into the hue of the colors in the background to reinforce the Rayleigh scattering effect. (Pollution and smoke, through Mie scattering, may mean altering the overall tone not with blue but with a warm color.) And remember that shadows in the distance are affected by the same physical laws as other objects in the distanceâ??that is, shadows in the background should be lighter than shadows in the foreground.

Another very helpful way to imply depth in a drawing is to overlap elements according to the logic of the scene. Adding a branch to a middle-ground tree that overlaps a building in the background will help push the building back. Distant mountains at different depths should overlap so the difference in their tone is readily apparent. Even if they donâ??t overlap in the actual scene, this adjustment should be considered on your paper anyway.

And finally, the human figure, an object that everyone inherently knows well, can be placed at the appropriate scale anywhere in the composition to create an instant understanding of the depth implied in the composition.

If you would like more information for Beginner Drawing: Download our free ebook: Step by Step Draw People from a Photograph: 31 Tips on How to draw people from a photograph

Like what you read? Become a Drawing subscriber today!

Beginner Drawing: Networking Opportunities for Artists

2008-05-07T12:04:00Z

Many artists work within the confines of their studios or homes, making it difficult to connect with colleagues. Below are different ways beginning artists can enter the social dimension of the art world.

by Naomi Ekperigin

Art Classes and Workshops

Attending art classes and workshops is a great way to access one’s local art scene and make valuable contacts and friends. Artist David Jon Kassan, who received the People’s Choice Award at the Portrait Society of America’s convention last spring, moved to New York City after attending college in Syracuse. He was lucky to have a few friends from college who lived in the city, and was able to maintain these relationships after graduation. He also joined local art groups, which he found very beneficial. “I was lucky to have found the Salmagundi Club here in Manhattan,” he says. “Their members are of all ages and skill levels and many are very helpful to younger artists. They also have scholarships available for younger artists that cover the membership dues.” Kassan’s relationship with the Salmagundi Club has lasted a long time, and he has even returned to teach workshops.

Although Kassan recommends workshops to all artists and says they’re “no sweat,” for others, joining a group setting can be daunting. Artist Karen Kaapcke recalls her initial fear when she began taking classes at the Art Students League. “I felt very vulnerable,” she says. “I really had to work on making a space safe for myself in the classroom.” Kaapcke also teaches art classes to children and teenagers, and offers this advice for beginning artists in a classroom setting: “Mental discipline is key. Do not focus on the work of your peers, or whether or not they will like or dislike your work. A workshop is about making mistakes, not self-judgment.”

Starting a group with friends is also a great way to split the costs of sessions as well as work in a more relaxed and familiar environment. Look for advertisements for “uninstructed figure drawing” at local colleges, galleries, artists clubs, and museums. Many artists make lifelong friendships in this kind of setting, and go on to visit each others’ studios and offer advice on their work.

Gallery Openings

Gallery openings offer a great opportunity for artists to not only see the work of those they admire, but also meet others with an appreciation for and interest in a specific style or artist. There are also many curators, collectors, and exhibitors who attend openings, allowing an artist to make business contacts that are immensely useful as one develops a portfolio or seeks venues to show their work. Many websites, such as www.artinfo.com, offer listings of galleries throughout the country along with their upcoming special events, yearly calendars, and even job openings.

There are millions of websites on the internet, and hundreds of thousands of them are geared towards artists. While this is exciting and offers a wide range of possibilities, it can also be difficult to know which sites are best given one’s particular needs or interests. Online forums are a great way for an artist of any level to engage in a dialogue with colleagues all over the country, learning about and sharing ideas on specific topics of interest. “Online forums are remarkable,” says artist Alyona Nickelsen. “You can speak directly with a wide community of different people with diverse experiences and approaches that are different from your own.” Many useful online communities include www.artscuttlebutt.com, and American Artist’s own Artists’ Forum, which allows artists to discuss magazine articles, get advice on techniques, and even speak with professionals.

Museum Tours

Every artist knows the inspiration that comes from walking the halls of a museum, be it small or large. However, fewer artists participate in guided tours of exhibitions or attend lectures. Doing so is another way one can come in contact with likeminded individuals in a setting that provokes dialogue and camaraderie. Being part of a group and having the opportunity to ask direct questions to a trained guide allows a beginning artist to enhance their knowledge of subject matter, styles, and art history, while interacting with people who share their interest. Some artists even choose to volunteer as tour guides, which enables them to stay firmly entrenched in their local art community, as well as keep their knowledge of art fresh. Museum websites often have a list of upcoming tours and many are free with museum admission.

In addition to the suggestions above there are many other opportunities available on local and state levels. Scouring newspapers and websites, and visiting art clubs and associations are good ways to find information. The most important thing a beginning artist can do is share themselves and their work with those who will support their burgeoning skill. Those people can only be found by becoming involved in the art community, which always seeks new members.

Naomi Ekperigin is the editorial assistant of American Artist.

Beginner Drawing: Understanding Anatomy: Drawing the Leg

2007-11-15T11:55:00Z

To use the legs expressively in his or her own work, an artist has to be able to draw them from a multitude of positions and every possible angle. Here's a quick overview of the anatomy of the human leg.

by Ephraim Rubenstein

Three Studies of a Right Leg
2006, red chalk, 13 x 20.
All artwork this article collection
the artist unless
otherwise indicated.

This study shows the major
masses of the same leg from
three different angles. Notice
how the contour of the knee
or calf muscle, for instance,
changes as the leg is rotated.
Subtle changes in rotation
will greatly affect the reading
of the contour.

Our legs are the pillars upon which we stand. They afford us independent mobility, and our ability to walk, run, and jump is synonymous with our sense of personal autonomy. To use legs expressively in our work, we have to be able to draw them in a multitude of positions and from every possible angle. In order to do this, we must first understand the structure of the leg, both inside and out.

Form and Function
The body is a complex series of levers and pulleys. If you can think about what each muscle is trying to do, you will understand its form more clearly. Perhaps the major functional principle in drawing the leg is that the movement of any part—the thigh, lower leg, or foot—is controlled by the part preceding it anatomically. Therefore, the muscles of the hip and pelvis control the thigh, the muscles of the thigh move the lower leg, and the muscles of the lower leg control the ankle and foot.

Bones and Joints
The leg is divided into two parts: the thigh and the lower leg. The thigh has only one bone, the femur, while the lower leg has two, the tibia and the fibula. Thrown in for good measure is a fourth, small, triangular bone, the patella, which protects the knee joint like a small shield.

The femur is the longest bone in the body. It is a fifth as long as the tibia and fibula, which means the distance from the hip to the knee is greater than from the knee to the ankle. Contrary to expectation, the femur does not follow the general axis of the thigh, but slants obliquely downward and inward.

Dissection Study of the Leg II
1982, graphite,
11 x 15.

My dissection work with Salvatore Montano
over a four-year period was an experience
that changed my life. Nowhere
is “the body as machine”
(as an elaborate system of levers and pulleys)
more apparent than when examining
a cadaver. The long tendons of the
lower leg are particularly complicated,
and this dissection required the
greatest delicacy.

The leg has three major joints: the hip, knee, and ankle, and all offer varying degrees of movement. The hip is a ball-and-socket joint that affords extensive movement in three general directions: flexion and extension; inward and outward rotation; and lateral movement. Moving the legs together laterally is known as adduction and apart as abduction. This great degree of flexibility allows us to execute maneuvers such as grand pliés in ballet and full splits in gymnastics.

The knee is a more limited hinge joint, and the articulation between the femur and the tibia allows only for flexion and extension. The small triangular bone of the patella, the major landmark of the knee area, rides in a notch at the base of the femur and is attached by strong tendons on top and bottom. It functions like a doorstop to prevent the leg from hyperextending forward.

Finally, the ankle is made up of seven small bones arranged roughly in two rows. They are bound together in a shallow arch, and their articulation with the tibia and fibula allows for a good deal of flexion and extension and a lesser amount of lateral movement and rotation.

Major Masses
The thigh can be divided into three major muscle masses: the quadriceps in front; the adductor group high up on the inside of the thigh; and the biceps, semimembranosus, and semitendinosus in the back.

The quadriceps, named for their four distinct heads, act to extend the lower leg and to flex the thigh against the pelvis. All four fleshy bodies join in a common tendon that crosses the patella and inserts into the upper end of the tibia.

Dissection Study of the Leg I
1982, graphite, 11 x 15.

The adductor group consists of several muscles that join themselves into a united shape that is rarely subdivided. These muscles draw the leg inward toward the central axis of the body.

The back of the thigh consists of two pairs of muscles that begin together at the top, but whose tendons
branch off in opposite directions below, forming the distinctive V-shaped hollow at the back of the knee. These visually prominent tendons are commonly called the hamstrings. The major function of these muscles is to flex the lower leg.

In addition, there are two long muscles that act as landmarks to divide the three major masses. The sartorius and the tensor fasciae latae both originate on the outside of the pelvis but immediately separate as they descend. The tensor fasciae latae has a prominent egg shape when flexed but flattens out as it drops straight down to form part of the illiotibial band. The sartorius, on the other hand, moves obliquely across the thigh descending to the inside of the knee and is the longest muscle in the body.

Anna’s Legs
2004, red chalk, 19 x 26.
The goal of understanding artistic anatomy is so that you can use the body for your own expressive purposes. The pattern of light and dark on the model’s legs contained so much mystery, I decided to let them speak for the whole figure.

Sarah IX
2004, red chalk, 19 x 26. Collection Scott Noel.

The undulating movement of the leg is particularly beautiful as it tapers from thigh to ankle. In this drawing, I played this beautiful rhythm off against the intricate folds of the drapery, themselves incredibly sensuous.

While the thigh is extremely muscular, the lower leg is relatively boney. The crest of the tibia, the head of the fibula, and both the lateral malleolus and medial malleolus are visible right under the surface of the skin. Most of the muscles of the lower leg are relatively flat with long tendons. The gastrocnemius, however, is a large muscle on the back of the leg with two distinct heads, the lateral being higher than the medial. Along with the soleus and plantaris, they make up the calf muscle group, which acts as a powerful extensor of the foot. These muscles taper into the Achilles tendon, which attaches the leg to the heel of the foot.

The other muscles of the lower leg can be grouped as either extensors or flexors of the ankle and foot, with the flexors situated to the front and lateral side of the crest of the tibia, and the extensors on the medial and posterior side.

Tapering
Like the arm, the leg narrows as it descends, tapering supplely from the thigh to the ankle. But in addition, the thigh and the lower leg each taper individually from top to bottom, setting up an undulating rhythm of swelling and narrowing that is incredibly beautiful.

Like what you read? Become a Drawing subscriber today!

Beginner Drawing Logic: Draw What You Don't See

2007-09-18T10:54:00Z

Faintly draw construction lines to remind yourself of the parts of the form you don't see.

by Bob Bahr

Contour of a Woman Relaxing
by Alex Zwarenstein, 2002, graphite, 20 x 30. All artwork this article collection the artist unless otherwise indicated.

Zwarenstein's perspective lines greatly diminish the possibility of distortion in the subject matter. Note also that he drew the entire naked foot, although an obscuring shoe—already partially sketched—would likely get added later.

When drawing any form of even the mildest complexity, it helps to sketch in the parts you can't see. Once your hand and mind are trained, these lines won't be as necessary, although even the most accomplished artists lightly draw construction lines for helpful reference. These lines are easily erased or covered over later.

The simple cube or rectangle is a perfect example. Unless you are drawing from a vantage point directly facing one of its sides, any building will show how drawing construction lines can help. The box's angles disappear out of sight, promising some sort of polygon if seen from above, but unless the angle of the line is drawn correctly, your Empire State Building will suggest a trapezoid instead of a rectangle. Draw the hidden, back corner of the building, connect the lines to square up the form's angles, and the drawing will be convincing. We learn this as kids, but somehow we forsake it as adult artists.

Examination of drawings by accomplished artists will not turn up these lines, but whether they were ever sketched is a separate question—they may have been erased. Most skilled artists don't need to draw the hidden corner of a cube, but many will, just as reference. Leonardo faintly drew the hidden lines of machines and structures in his sketchbook so he could work their structures out in his mind and with his hand. That should be more than enough license for the rest of us.

Twisting Gesture (detail)
by Dan Gheno, 2004, sanguine crayon, 24 x 10.

Note how Gheno drew the shape of the rib cage even though it is not visible from the surface. This allowed him to properly orient the rest of the torso.

Preparatory study for Suit Shopping: An Engraved Narrative, Triptych, Scene 4
by Andrew Raftery, graphite.

Raftery drew the figures for his final prints naked before working on the finished version of his drawings in which they are clothed.

Fey, Seated (detail)
by Sharon Allicotti, 2005, colored pencil
on blue-green paper,
25 x 19.

Note how the footstool hid the lower part of the model's right leg, but Allicotti drew it in anyway to ensure that the visible part of the right foot was properly sized and oriented in relation to the rest of the body.

Most drawing teachers will tell you that understanding what's beneath the skin of a human figure will help you accurately draw what is visible from the outside. Sketching the basic shape of the rib cage, as Dan Gheno did in Twisting Gesture, reminded him of the torso's orientation and structure. Clothes obscure even the skin, so it's not surprising that artists throughout history have started their compositions by first drawing the figures naked, then redrawing them clothed in the appropriate costume. Jacques-Louis David used this method, as did Thomas Eakins. Andrew Raftery, a contemporary printmaker and art instructor, takes this further by making nude models of figures in wax, sketching the resulting diorama, and then working up to a finished drawing.

Many artists' sketchbooks include drawings of skulls, skeletons, and muscle groups, and all are exercising this approach: Draw what you don't see but know is there.

There is value in drawing exactly what you see instead of what you know is there. Drawing through observation instead of relying on preconceived notions is a crucial step in an artist's early development. But extending a line you know is there through a form that sits in front of it is not a fatal compromise of this principle. The best way to accurately render the line of the road, even as it passes behind that picturesque barn or copse of woods, is to draw it.

Similarly, if a limb or even the torso of a figure is obscuring another limb (or a part of the torso), draw through the figure or limb and complete the line. You can erase it later.


Cartoon drawing for Portrait of Linda Wink by Alexey Steele, 2003, Conté, 47½ x 33. Private collection. Even in this fairly finished study the artist broadly indicated the lower part of the model's left leg, which was hidden behind her arm and wrist.	Reclining Female Nude, One Foot Propped on Her Thigh by Auguste Rodin, ca. 1900, graphite, 12? x 7?. Collection Museé Rodin, Paris, France.
Consider the same concept from the opposite direction. Even if a torso is obscured by a breast, arm, or another object, draw the torso's contours and major forms. The torso is crucial in suggesting the gesture.

Reaching Gesture
by Dan Gheno, 2005, sanguine chalk, 24 x 11.

Notice how Gheno extended the lines of bulges beyond their intersection in "concave" areas of the form to ensure that these indentations were not exaggerated—thus reinforcing the fact that the indentations were merely the negative space between large muscle groups.

Gheno points out an easily correctable mistake artists sometimes make: drawing inaccurate curves—especially on the human figure. Inexperienced artists tend to draw the indentation between two bulges as a pinched angle, when the indentation is actually much more gentle. The easy solution is to draw the continuation of the curved lines of the bulges; the inappropriate severity of the indentation in the line is usually a function of the artist seeing an imagined concavity instead of the intersection of the major forms that creates the "concavity." Art teachers often repeat the mantra, "There are no concave forms on the human body—only overlapping convex forms."? Keep this in mind and these phantom concavities will stay reined in.

Stephanie
by Sigmund Abeles, 2006, charcoal,
24 x 18.
Collection the artist.

Sigmund Abeles's sketch of a neighbor and model demonstrates two more examples of drawing what you don't see (view an audio slideshow demonstration of Stephanie). Note how Abeles left more blank paper to the left of the model than to the right. The artist explains that he needed to â??give room for the action to act.â? Stephanie was looking out the window, stage left. Abeles' blank area gives her a place to look.

Secondly, in the early stages of the drawing Abeles sketched in construction lines showing the form of the chair in which the model was sitting—including lines showing the part of the chair hidden behind the body. It allowed him to more accurately draw the curves of the support and to more convincingly depict the figure's weight on it. A believable figure of substance needs something solid to sit on, and incorrectly rendering the curved lines of the chair would rob the drawing of its credibility—and seemingly put the model at risk of a tumble.

Perspective Drawing for The Pair-Oared Shell
by Thomas Eakins, 1872, graphite, ink, and watercolor, 3113/16 x 479/16. Collection Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

When a prominent horizon, numerous boxlike structures, or crucial layering of elements make accurate perspective crucial, draw extensive construction lines. The exceedingly thorough Eakins often did.

Bust of a Woman Holding an Urn
by Simon Vouet, ca. 1644, black chalk heightened with white on buff paper, 91/2 x 8. Collection Louis-Antoine Prat.

Vouet took no chances in drawing the entire elliptical opening of the urn, even though the liquid pouring out of its opening was obscuring part of the ellipse.

The internet has many websites with tips, complicated algorithims, and elaborate illustrations dedicated to helping people understand the nature of ellipses and some methods for rendering them. It is senseless for a draftsman to make matters more difficult by not lightly sketching a hidden area of the oval shape.

If you are drawing a glass, draw the entire ellipse that forms the bottom of the glass, even though you may only see the front of it. This pertains to the lip of the opening in a vase too. Draw the complete ellipse, and erase the hidden portions after you are satisfied that the curve is accurate.

If you would like more information for Beginner Drawing: Download our free ebook: Step by Step Draw People from a Photograph: 31 Tips on How to draw people from a photograph

To read more features like this, become a Drawing subscriber today!

Beginner Drawing: Linear Perspective: The Basics

2007-07-16T10:54:00Z

It is critical for artists of all levels to understand and feel comfortable using linear perspective.

by Stephanie Kaplan

Understanding linear perspective is important for all artists, beginners included, regardless of their medium or subject matter, as the concept of linear perspective has revolutionized the way artists perceive and incorporate spatial depth in their work. Established in solid, mathematical terms in the 15th century, linear perspective creates the illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface, such as a piece of paper or canvas. Linear perspective is also based on the illusion that when parallel lines recede into the distance, they appear to get closer together. To create effective linear perspective, artists establish a horizon line, a vanishing point on that line, and multiple orthogonal, or vanishing, lines. The horizon line is a horizontal line that runs across the paper or canvas to represent the viewer’s eye level and delineate where the sky meets the ground. The orthogonal lines, which distort objects by foreshortening them, create the optical illusion that objects grow smaller and closer together as they get farther away. These imaginary lines recede on the paper to meet at one point on the horizon called the vanishing point.


Both images from Art History, Revised Edition Volume Two, by Stephen Addiss, Bradford R. Collins, and Marilyn Stokstad (Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, New York). The difference between one- and two-point perspective is the number of vanishing points and where they are placed on the horizon line.	Saint Augustine Teaching in Rome (scene 6, south wall) by Benozzo Gozzoli. 1464-65, fresco, 86? x 90?. Collection Apsidal Chapel, Sant'Agostino, San Gimignano, Italy. The vanishing point on Saint Augustine’s hand and the orthogonal lines that radiate from this point create one-point linear perspective.

When first learning how to incorporate perspective into your composition, it is best to concentrate on one-point perspective with the use of one vanishing point (two- and three-point perspective use two and three vanishing points, respectively). One-point perspective is helpful when drawing or painting roads, railroad tracks, or buildings that directly face the viewer. According to Patrick Connors, an adjunct professor at the New York Academy of Art, in Manhattan, who teaches a graduate class on linear perspective, “The components of perspective are three: the eye (the artist or viewer), the picture plane, and the figure (or object). The science is about the relationship among the three. An introduction to perspective is necessary for the representational artist,” he continues. “Even a basic understanding of linear perspective will, at least, enhance an artist’s appreciation for the perceptual underpinnings of the illusions of space,” regardless of whether he or she is painting a landscape, a still life, or creating a sculpture. To help his students learn the basics of linear perspective, Connors instructs them to complete the following linear perspective exercise:

What You Will Need

16”-x-20” sheet of paper

ruler

straight edge (a 30°– 60°– 90° triangle is recommended)

compass

protractor

pencil (Connors recommends an H graphite pencil)

red pencil

blue pencil

eraser

optional: a drawing board or drafting table with true 90° edges


Step 1 Place your paper horizontally, parallel to the edge of the surface on which you are working. Draw a horizontal line with the graphite pencil about six inches down from the top of the paper.	Step 2 Use the graphite pencil to draw a vertical line perpendicular to the horizontal line 10 inches from the left side of the paper. The horizontal line represents the horizon line, or eye-level line (E-LL), and the vertical line represents the center line (CL).	Step 3 Place a straight-edged ruler along the CL and measure eight inches down from the E–LL. Place a mark on the line and label it the “eye” (often called the station point). This intersection is the vanishing point (or point of sight), which is crucial for placing figures in one-point perspective drawings.	Step 4 Place a protractor on the “eye,” making sure that the eye of the protractor is placed correctly on the eye of the CL and the 90° mark on the CL. Measure 30° to the left of the CL, which is 60° on the protractor, and place a mark on the paper.

Step 5 Place a straight edge (the 30°– 60°– 90° triangle) at the “eye,” line it up with the 60° mark, and draw a line until it intersects the E-LL.	Step 6 Place the stationary point of the compass at the point of sight and place the recording point at the mark from Step 4 to draw a circle. (If your compass is too small, use a string with a pencil, taping one end of the string to the point of sight.) This circle represents the cone of vision (CV), which establishes the boundaries for the rest of the perspective lines.	Step 7 To draw the grid, draw a parallel line three inches below the E–LL with the blue pencil. This line should be eight inches long with four inches to the left and right of the CL. Then use the red pencil to mark off each inch on the line.	Step 8 Use the red pencil and the straight edge to draw a line between the point of sight and each inch-mark (eight lines in total). These lines are one set of the grid’s parallel lines and demonstrate that parallel lines vanish to the same vanishing point—one of the basic rules of perspective.

Step 9 Next, measure the distance between the “eye” and the point of sight (eight inches here). Draw an eight-inch line starting at the point of sight and extending to the left to create a measuring point (MP).	Step 10 Once the MP is established, use a blue pencil and a straight edge to draw a diagonal line between the MP and the right ending point of the baseline, across the red vanishing lines. Also mark the eight intersections of the blue diagonal line with the red vanishing lines.	Step 11 Draw a blue line parallel to the baseline at each intersection mark that runs from the left-most to the right-most vanishing line.	The Completed Grid by Patrick Connors

For students who do not immediately catch on to linear perspective, Connors has this encouragement: “Those who want to use it can work independently with it. Those for whom it is helpful can do great things with it.”


Examples of student midterm projects from Connors’ classes at the New York Academy of Art, in Manhattan, and the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, in Philadelphia, that build on the grid exercise mentioned above. All artwork this article courtesy of Patrick Connors unless otherwise indicated.

Stephanie Kaplan is the online editor of American Artist.

Beginner: Drawing Materials, the Basics

2007-06-13T19:10:00Z

by Bob Bahr

Here are the basic art materials drawing.

Drawing

Graphite pencils
A graphite pencil usually consists of a long, thin cylinder of graphite enclosed in a hexagonal wooden sleeve--the standard pencil. But solid graphite is also available in a pencil form that is wrapped in plastic to keep the graphite off the user’s hands. Graphite pencils come in degrees of hardness, and artists use the varieties to achieve different effects. Most draftsmen keep at least 6B, 4B, 2B, and HB pencils in their toolbox. The graphite in a pencil has clay in it to make the graphite more cohesive. The higher the clay content, the harder the lead in the pencil. A very hard pencil lead will make precise marks; a softer lead will leave pigment in a more flowing manner.

Charcoal is
available in
three different
forms: vines,
willow twigs,
and pencils.
From the New
Artist's
Handbook (DK
Publishing,
Inc., New York,
New York.)

Charcoal
Charcoal is slowly charred wood. Large vines are charred in an airtight environment to make bigger sticks of charcoal, while thin willow twigs are charred for other applications when a thin stick is needed. Like graphite, charcoal comes in degrees of hardness. Charcoal is also sold in pencil form.

Conté
Conté crayon is a popular drawing material that is similar to chalk but waxier. It is available in sticks of black, white, sepia, bistre, and sanguine. It is difficult to erase.

Kneaded eraser
The soft, slightly sticky surface of this pliable, puttylike eraser allows an artist to precisely lift up a lot of pigment from a drawing without generating “crumbs.”

Paper
Draftsmen have worked on virtually every kind of paper produced. Some papers, like Bristol board, are more difficult to erase from. Others, such as newsprint, are not archival. An artist’s choice in drawing paper should reflect the goals of the drawing. Is it meant to be purely a preliminary work in preparation for another piece? Is precision important, and are fine details required? Should the paper be toned in a middle value, or does the artist wish to have the drawing pop off a stark white background?

Beginner Drawing Logic: Perspective Basics

2007-05-16T10:56:00Z

A knowledge of the three major perspective systems will allow you to create a convincing space in your drawing. Check out this primer on the subject.

In scary films, a character somehow senses that something unidentifiable is very wrong as soon as he or she steps into a room. A surefire way to get a similarly unpleasant effect in a drawing is to be careless in handling perspective. The viewer will know something is wrong, even if it is not readily apparent. To make a convincing space, keep in mind the following three types of perspective systems, and implement the one most appropriate for your drawing.


Interior of the Cathedral of St. Bavo, Haarlem by Pieter Jansz. Saenredam, ca. 1648, pen and brown ink and gray wash over graphite, squared for transfer in red chalk, 19¼ x 14. Collection The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York.	Figure 1: One-Point Perspective

Perspective is the visual effect that makes a square wall into a parallelogram and makes train tracks meet in the far distance—in your mind’s eye. The simplest way to ensure proper perspective is to adhere to a one-point perspective. This is easy: draw the horizon line in your composition, and then consider the line of sight—the exact direction that the viewer’s eye is meant to go. The intersection of these two lines is the vanishing point. Once the vanishing point is established, the artist must simply ensure that all lines that recede into the distance on a parallel to the viewer’s line of sight—be it a row of trees, the roofline of a building, the moulding along a ceiling, or rows of grapevines—intersect at the vanishing point. These lines are called convergence lines. (See Fig. 1)

Two-point perspective is useful when a cube or rectangle is being viewed from an oblique angle—that is, if the viewer is looking at or into a corner. To correctly render the convergence lines in this situation, first establish the horizon line, then find the vanishing points at either side of the box’s corner. (See Fig. 2) The box’s lines along the ground or floor, together with the lines along the roof or ceiling, will determine these vanishing points—assuming that the floor and the roof are parallel planes.

Figures 2 and 3: Two
and Three-Point Perspective

The third type is three-point perspective. This system allows you to draw from a worm’s-eye view or a bird’s-eye view. Three-point perspective is two-point perspective with the addition of a vanishing point either in the sky or in the ground. If you are looking up at a building at an oblique angle, the left and right outside edges of the building, normally parallel in one- and two-point perspective, converge toward a meeting point in the sky—assuming the building is shaped like a box or otherwise not designed by Frank Gehry. A tall building scene from above will have convergence lines that meet underground. Obviously, the horizon line does not play a role in finding this third perspective point. (See Fig. 3)

Similar geometry can help an artist accurately draw shadows—by drawing lines from the light source to the edges of the object casting the shadow, then continuing these lines onto the shadowed surface.


Last Supper by Leonardo, 1495–1498, oil and tempera fresco, 15’ x 29’. Refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, Italy.	Sketches for the Last Supper; Architectural and Geometric Sketches by Leonardo, 1493–1495, pen and golden brown ink, 101/2 x 87/16. British Royal Collection, London, England. The one-point perspective in Last Supper strongly emphasizes Christ in the composition. Without it, as Leonardo’s rough sketch shows, the scene simply looks like some men having dinner.	Nativity by Albrecht Dürer, 1504, monogram on tablet, 71/8 x 45/8. Dürer seemed to relish tackling various issues of perspective in this drawing.

To read more features like this, become a Drawing subscriber today!

Beginner Drawing: Shadows and Light: The Basics

2007-04-16T10:57:00Z

An object is almost never in simply light and shade. Rather, it is usually in an environment in which light is bouncing around in several directions. For this reason it is important for beginners to understand the nature of shadows.

by Bob Bahr

Diagram A
Light hitting a cylindrical
object and the resulting
pattern of shadow (D), highlight
(HL), darkest dark, or core
shadow (DD), and reflected light (RL).
All diagrams this article
by Steven L. Weiss.

Artists refer to six basic concepts when describing the behavior of light on a form, listed here in order of brightness: highlight, direct light, reflected light, shadow, core shadow, and cast shadow.

Highlight refers to the bright reflection that occurs where the light directly hits the form. If the surface is irregular, the highlight may be at the crest of the surface in direct light. If the surface has a protuberance somewhere else in direct light, the highlight may be on the protuberance in the area closest to the light source. Highlights are usually small and intense spots of near-white. The highlight is NEVER at a 90-degree angle to the light source, but rather between that angle and where the artist's line of vision hits the object. This is important to understand because assuming that a highlight simply indicates the direction of a light source will result in a misleading rendering of the shadows.

Direct light refers to any area on the form that directly receives light from the light source. Contrast this with reflected light.

Reflected light, or bounced light, is light on the dark side of the form that has been reflected onto the form by adjacent surfaces. For example, the shadow side of a sphere is slightly illuminated by light bouncing off the floor and onto this side of the object. The color of the object is often most true in this area because direct light can wash out local color. Without reflected light, all the viewer would see is the lit side, resulting in an unconvincing image. Reflected light rounds the form. It is never darker than a cast shadow or lighter than the shadow area that appears on the periphery of the area in direct light.

Diagram B Renaissance artists realized
that the light source should
be placed in front of and to the
left or right of the object
to best model the form resulting
in a pattern of shadow (D),
highlight (HL), darkest dark,
or core shadow (DD), and
reflected light (RL).

The shadow area is all area not in direct light. Part of the shadow area is illuminated by reflected light. Another part of the shadow area is the core shadow.

Core shadow, or terminator, is the darkest dark on the form, and it appears as a line or plane parallel to the light source, benefiting from neither direct light nor reflected light.

Cast shadow is the shadowed area on adjacent surfaces where the direct light is blocked by the form. It is darker than the core shadow. Its edges are clearly delineated where it is closest to the form, and softer as it stretches away from the form. The shadow is darkest where it is closest to the form.

Of course, if there is more than one light source, all of the above is modified significantly! And remember, if the artist is confused about the light and shadow, the viewer will assuredly be as well.

Also, keep in mind that a light sky will act as a secondary, subtle source of light in addition to the sun (or moon). The sky, which is reflected light from the sun, reflects light in turn upon any object beneath it. When a shadow area outside seems bluish, it is because the area is getting its primary light from the blue sky.

Bob Bahr is the managing editor of American Artist.

If you would like to download more information on Drawing for Beginners, please check out our Free eBook: Draw People from a Photograph: 31 Tips on How to draw a Person from a Photograph.

Beginner Drawing: The Blind Contour Exercise: Employing Observation to Improve Your Drawings

2007-04-16T10:56:00Z

The Blind Contour drawing exercise is a fundamental tool that can help artists of all levels learn to reacquaint themselves with the power of observation.

by Allison Malafronte

A student’s Blind Contour
drawing of a hand from the
Pacific University website.

The Blind Contour drawing exercise is a fundamental tool that can help artists of all levels learn to reacquaint themselves with the power of observation. Popularized by Kimon Nicolaïdes in his 1941 book The Natural Way to Draw: A Working Plan for Art Study (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Massachusetts), the Blind Contour method involves carefully observing the outline and shapes of a subject while slowly drawing its contours in a continuous line without looking at the paper. By doing so, artists are forced to draw what they actually see instead of what they think they see.

The method was explored further in Betty Edwards’ popular book Drawing on the Right Side of Side of the Brain (Tarcher, New York, New York), in which the author encourages artists to understand what they are drawing instead of instinctually labeling objects and drawing them accordingly. Edwards helps artists improve their observational skills by instructing them to look at the lines, shapes, and patterns of objects and how they combine to form what we see.

“The reason most people have difficulty drawing realistically is not because of any lack of physical skill or talent but because they have not been trained to really look at what they see.” ---Terry O’Day, the chair of the art department at Pacific University, in Forest Grove, Oregon

Many art instructors teach Nicolaïdes’ and Edwards’ methods as a way of helping students transfer visual information to a two-dimensional surface. “Drawing through observation is a skill that most people are capable of learning,” says Terry O’Day, the chair of the art department at Pacific University, in Forest Grove, Oregon, where the Blind Contour method is taught. “The physical act of drawing consists mostly of developing hand-eye coordination. Anyone who can write legibly has the physical ability to record observations of a subject through drawing.

“The reason most people have difficulty drawing realistically is not because of any lack of physical skill or talent,” O’Day continues, “but because they have not been trained to really look at what they see.” To help her students do this, she instructs them to practice the following Blind Contour exercise:

What You Will Need
-- paper
-- pencil or pen
-- timer

A student’s Blind Contour drawing
of feet from the Pacific
University website.

Blind Contour Exercise
1.) Choose a subject to draw—still-life objects or the figure work well for this exercise
2.) Set the timer for 20 minutes
3.) Tape the paper to the drawing surface so that it doesn’t shift as you draw
4.) Arrange yourself so that you can see the object you will be drawing without seeing the paper
5.) Focus your eyes on some part of the object and begin moving your pencil to record what your eyes observe
6.) Do not look down at the paper as your draw. Rather, force yourself to concentrate on how the shapes, lines, and contours of the object relate to one another
7.) Continue observing and recording until the timer rings

“Although this exercise can be difficult at first,” O’Day admits, “with practice and perseverance it will become easier, and you will learn to shift your thinking from an analytical, labeling mode to one that is more intuitive.”

Allison Malafronte is the associate editor for American Artist.

Beginners Drawing: Making Better Lines, Making Lines Better

2007-03-16T07:55:00Z

Line has been around for a long time. Ever since the prehistoric era, when that first artist picked up a lump of wood ash from a spent campfire and outlined a hand on the cave wall, lines have described forms of all types--human, animal, and landscape. On its own, line is a very powerful force. A line can depict the simple silhouette of a form as well as its more complicated interior dimensions. When used in a hatching manner, it can even simulate value. And when joined with softer, smudged tones known as value masses, you have a combined unstoppable force--except, perhaps, by a good eraser.

by Dan Gheno

Line has been around for a long time. Ever since the prehistoric era, when that first artist picked up a lump of wood ash from a spent campfire and outlined a hand on the cave wall, lines have described forms of all types—human, animal, and landscape. On its own, line is a very powerful force. A line can depict the simple silhouette of a form as well as its more complicated interior dimensions. When used in a hatching manner, it can even simulate value. And when joined with softer, smudged tones known as value masses, you have a combined unstoppable force—except, perhaps, by a good eraser.

Seated Woman
by Egon Schiele, 1918, black colored pencil, 18 11/16 x 11 13/16. Collection Ackland Art Museum, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Some artists will argue that you can most effectively render the human figure or abstract imagery with value-massing alone, that everything you can do with line, you can do with light and dark tonalities. That is true. Some of the most evocative drawings are indeed based on value alone. But at its core, all finely observed tonal shapes are bound by an implied "edge," or conceptual line, even if it exists only subconsciously in the viewer's mind. Personally, I'm excited by the explicit combination of line and mass in my own work. As I will explain in this article, why not use both? First I'll describe how to use line on its own. Later I'll show you how to merge both into a dynamic partnership.

Point and Line to Plane
Line first starts quietly on the page as a dot. Then, to loosely borrow from the title of Wassily Kandinsky's book, Point and Line to Plane, this potent mark or point transforms into a line and finally, in the hands of a trained artist, turns into a volumetric plane. By varying the thickness, darkness, and texture of the line, you can simulate a movement in and out of human forms, especially if you let lines cross over one another, digging past the outside edges of the figure, into its interior peaks and valleys. Depending upon your subject or your aesthetic intent, you can use lines that are sharp like wire, lines that are rough like Brillo, or lines that are so soft that they melt into the surrounding paper. Lines can range from the directness of Egon Schiele's often unmodulated outlines, to the pseudo-brushwork of an Anders Zorn or Charles Dana Gibson, to the curvaceous, engravinglike quality of Dürer. Depending upon how you apply your pencil to paper, lines can have an emotional, psychological aspect, and they almost always display some sort of a visual, rhythmic property in the way they dance around the page.

However, don't make the common mistake of thinking that line is nothing more than a conceptual concern. Throughout the drawing process, your line quality is dramatically influenced by your choice of materials, the texture of the paper, your drawing instruments, their sharpness, and the way you hold them in your hand. For instance, I prefer to start my figure drawings with long, sweeping, lightly plied lines—an impossible task if I hold my pencil or chalk between my thumb and forefinger as I would when writing a letter. (This hand position works splendidly when sketching in the final details, especially if buttressed by a mahlstick or a small, separate clean piece of paper under your drawing hand.) Instead, when starting out, I turn the back of my hand to the paper (see Fig.1, left), loosely holding the pencil toward the end of the shaft and sandwiched between my thumb, palm, and forefinger. I frequently change my hand position depending upon the intended direction of the line: If I'm drawing downward, I hold the pencil from below, allowing gravity to firmly guide my hand's descent (Fig.2); I hold the pencil from above if I’m drawing upward (Fig.3). Both positions allow for greater movement of the shoulder and elbow, putting less importance on the jagged actions of the wrist and fingers. You can also get a thin, clean line when you draw with the direction of the pencil lead, affected only by the roughness of the paper or the softness of the drawing instrument. But notice how easily you can vary the thickness of line when you suddenly change directions, say, from the vertical to the horizontal (Fig.4). When drawing with the shaft of the lead, instead of the point, that thin line suddenly turns thick. As you chart your way through the details of the figure, you will find your line automatically fluctuating with the direction of your hand and pencil.

Pure Line
You can say a great deal even with a minimum of lines. When working from life, you can suggest a fully formed human figure with a simple deadweight line just by carefully observing and mapping the

Twisted Torso
by Dan Gheno, 2006,
pastel and sanguine crayon, 9 x 12.
Collection the artist.

outer edges of the model. Look closely at your subject, as Egon Schiele does in Reclining Nude With Raised Torso, charting the subtle variations of exterior shapes. Each bump suggests some bone or muscle. You can certainly distort the proportions of the figure or exaggerate its perspective like Schiele does with his drawing of the woman lunging forward into the picture plane, but try to respond candidly and directly to the outside shapes. Your viewers will then sense the volumes within, based upon the experience and instinctual knowledge of their own bodies.

Closure
You don't need to wrap your figures with a continuous, rigid, bold outline. You can create a more profound sense of closure by marking the edges of the smaller human forms with intermittent lines, in the manner Cézanne and Degas sometimes did. Working this way, you can take a minimal approach: For example, you can mark off the root, the base, and the tip of the nose, and the viewer will intuit the rest of the line. But if you're interested in simulating form, don't reduce the number of lines too much. You should at least place a hint of a line at important high and low points along the perimeter of an object and where one important subform crosses another. The drawing will look incomplete or jarringly blank in places if you don't.

Overlapping Lines
Although the outside shape is important and, as Plato seems to suggest in his theory of Ideal Form, is essential to the very identity and recognition of the object, we eventually need to travel inside the figure with our lines. It's difficult or impossible for the beginning artist to do this when working from photos, but while working from life, you will see how forms continuously overlap one another, as when the neck slides over and above the shoulder, or the deltoid runs in front of the collar bone and wedges into the upper arm. In my drawing Arm Swinging Back, note how I varied the thickness and value of the line to simulate the swelling of the underlying forms, particularly in the legs. Also, observe how I've portrayed the transition of the left calf into the upper leg, with the "overcutting" forms, as sculptors phrase it, represented by overlapping lines. However, don't become dogmatic. Notice how I use these techniques in a discriminating fashion. I emphasized the darkness in the line along the near shoulder so that the more faintly rendered far shoulder could recede. Even though the near elbow is closer to the viewer than the shoulder, I selectively chose to emphasize the overlapping, bony points of the elbow instead of the entire projecting shape of the arm to keep it from looking stiffly enclosed. I felt that the lines of the elbow were just dark and sharp enough to bring it ahead of the receding hand.

Hatching
Many artists like to take a topographical, hatching approach to their linework, such as in Albrecht Dürer's drawings. You can learn a lot from looking at the work of this Northern Renaissance artist. In Head of an Apostle, see how he weaves his line around the forms, using longer, gradually curving strokes on the softer, more rounded form of the overall head. Meanwhile, he uses shorter hatching strokes, alternating in direction, to describe the smaller, more angular forms of the wrinkles and bony landmarks. Observe how he overlaps lines in a graduated manner in the detail; he never layers the hatching in a tic-tac-toe, right-angled way. Usually, one stroke gradually leads into the other, and as in the highlight rendered in white lines, the hatching can take on an almost spirallike appearance. In another example, notice how the depth of Michelangelo's lines vary greatly and seem to become darker and more intense where they coalesce around the accented bony and hard muscles points on the figure in Study of a Male Nude. When rendered with pen and ink, his accents not only seem to turn darker but also appear to have an almost polished, burnished look.

Try spending some time studying or copying old engravings, as the students of the French Academy were required to do in the 18th and 19th centuries. It's also helpful to study comic-book artists such as Neal Adams or Mort Drucker for their smoothly interlacing crosshatching methods. This will attune your eye to the nuance of line and help you develop a subtlety and syntax for your hatching technique. But don't overdo it, and don’t become a slave to fancy pyrotechnical linework. When working from life, spend at least as much time looking at the model as you do rendering the lines. Otherwise, your drawing will look simplistic and stylized, wrapped up in a convoluted mass of barbed wire or what an artist and influential art-techniques writer of the 19th century, Jacques-Nicolas Paillot de Montabert, called "wretched studies" and "the somewhat absurd patience of those individuals who ... imitate exactly the engraving tool" instead of nature. According to the art historian Albert Boime, the teachers of the French Academy frequently whined about the tendency of their advanced students to draw in this mannered way, unaware that their early overemphasis on mindlessly copying engravings "fostered the cold and lifeless appearance which the Academy itself criticized."

The Fusion of Line and Mass
For a counterpoint to this hard-line approach, take a long look at Charles Dana Gibson's drawings,

A First Night
by Charles Dana Gibson, ink.

rendered in softer, broader, and looser entwined strokes. Along with several artists and illustrators in this cross-century period, Gibson tried to emulate the flowing, painterly effect of value-massing with line alone. Although many of his freely curving and parallel lines seem to follow the volumes of his subjects, his goal seems less the tactile sensation of form that Dürer pursued and more an attempt to show the optical effects of light on structure. Observe how Gibson evocatively creates shades of light and dark by varying the closeness and number of hatching lines to indicate value change. He applies a delicate weave of subtle lines to the paper when he represents the softer forms that appear to be gradually darker as they turn away from the light source. He uses a greater quantity of harsher lines when he indicates the harder forms that sharply corner away from the light and turn dramatically into darker shadow masses.

It's not easy to draw in ink, but it is a great way to accelerate the learning process. You can't make any mistakes with pen-and-ink, so you quickly learn to observe and choose your lines wisely. There are many tools to choose for this torture; you should try all of them until you find the one that suits you. The Gibson generation used flexible dip pens and thin, pointed sable brushes to master their elegant thick and thin lines. Van Gogh made some of his own rudimentary yet effective pens out of common reeds and feathers. Today, we also have a wide variety of fountain pens and even fountain brushes to take some of the torment out of the process. I used to draw with both in my early years, but now I find that a ballpoint pen serves my purposes just as well. Some contemporary brands of ballpoint pens are prone to frustratingly splotchy accidents, but if you try enough different manufacturers, you will discover a few that provide a sensitive and dependable line. You will find a ballpoint pen quite useful while on the move, when you want a fluid, sketchy look, or when you want to indicate a large value mass across the page with a cluster of rapidly hatched lines.

Lines as Mass
If you pile enough fine, delicately rendered hatch lines onto your drawing, you can create the look of a soft, "lineless" tonal shape when viewed from a distance. I like to combine bold lines with these more delicate hatch lines. Sometimes I purposely use the parallel-lined texture of laid paper to enhance this effect, allowing my pencil to travel up and down with the direction of the grain, as I did in Seated Figure. In some cases, I smudge a little tone onto the textured paper with a stump so that the contrast between the ridges and gutters of the paper isn't too jarring. In most cases, I try to find a fusion of line with tone, aiming for a gradual transition of linework into pure value mass. The more I move into these soft-blended passages, the farther back I grip the pencil on the casing. I find it easier to control the pressure of my line with my hand in this elevated position, allowing me to stroke in a broader and wider arching motion. At these moments, I hold the pencil so gently that it often falls from my hand.

It takes a great deal of practice to manipulate line into tonal value mass. If you're just starting out, rehearse your line quality as much as possible. Even while watching television, you can pull out a pad and draw lines repeatedly in small square swatches, testing out different hand positions and varying the pressure. Try to practice blending your lines. Gently run lines parallel to one another, layering them closer and closer until they almost seem to disappear. Then try drawing lines in the opposite direction on this same swatch to get even more added subtlety and blending of line into mass. If you're an advanced artist, it's equally advisable to keep an extra piece of paper at hand when drawing, so you can test out your hand pressure or rehearse a complicated tone before laying it onto your finished drawing.

Wet Media
The ink-and-wash method is another effective tool in our quest to join line and mass, and because of its technical similarity to the watercolor medium, it even serves as a useful bridge between the artificial categories of drawing and painting. Observe how both Giambattista Tiepolo with The Holy Family and Jean-Baptiste Greuze with Woman Embracing a Recumbent Old Man run loose value washes across their compositions, joining their figures into larger, painterly abstracted value masses. Notice, too, how the harder lines sometimes melt into the wet wash, turning into softer, blended accents. Try this in your own work, using water-soluble ink. Often, you don't even need to use an accompanying wash—you can use a brush loaded with water to drag some ink out of the line and create an overlying value pattern.

Soda Fountain
by Isabel Bishop, ca. 1954,
ink wash, 7 1/8 x 6.

Mass can sometimes so dominate an image that line may seem a mere adjunct to its partner, serving to accentuate the deepest darks or the brightest lights, or merely containing the outside edges in places. Even when used sparingly, as I try to do in most of my drawings (see Twisted Torso), line is still indispensable to my work. But remember that a little line goes a long way. On this quick, five-minute sketch, I confined most of my linework to the peripheral forms, overlapping and varying their weight to reinforce the interior, interlocking forms. I tried not to disturb the flow of the value gradations within, but in places I added a few strokes to accentuate some of the sharp bony points and areas of deep relief where action hardens the muscles. I retreated from tonal massing at the extremities of the torso, counting on the remaining solitary lines to ease the figure into the bare paper.

The power of line and mass doesn't end with the sculptural representation and the natural effects of light on the human form. They can serve a design function as in the previous example or, as in the Charles LeBrun drawing, where line and mass rhythmically fade in and out of the blank page. Value mass and line almost become one abstract unit in some of Isabel Bishop's ink-wash drawings. It's hard to tell where shape ends and calligraphy begins in her Soda Fountain. She also used bold hybrid line and shape marks in many of her paintings, sometimes overlapping them in a disembodied way that reinforces the essential flatness and formal potential of the canvas or paper. We shouldn't completely ignore the other conceptual assets of these contrasting strokes, either. Notice how Fragonard exploits both their emotive and expressive abilities in The Pacha. Known for his Rubenesque use of color and animated brushwork, he approached drawing with equal enthusiasm, here dragging a brush speedily across his textural paper in an impassioned, desperate script, and there filling the page with an almost modern, repeating pattern of rough marks.

The Use of Line in Painting
The use of line is not confined to the realm of paper and drawing. Even many mass-centered artists use line to start their paintings. I frequently begin my canvases with a vague charcoal sketch.

Multicolored Figure
by Dan Gheno, 1996,
colored pencil, 18 x 24.
Collection the artist.

Then I reconfirm and build upon my initial charcoal lines with paint, usually a blue, or permanent alizarin crimson. I dilute the paint with a lot of solvent so that the color flows freely, like ink. Thanks to the heavy proportion of solvent, the painted lines dry quickly, usually within five to 20 minutes. This gives me a lot of freedom, allowing me to move into the painting process right away. If I think I've lost control of the drawing, I can scrape off some of the top layers to retrieve the original drawing below. But take care when you use this approach. Oil paint becomes transparent with time, and you must avoid drawing with an extremely dark line, especially if you paint in thin layers.

I sometimes use lines to redraw a painting that's in progress, changing to a new color each time I make a revision so that I can compare my changes against the previous incarnation. I sporadically do this in my drawn work, such as Multicolored Figure, just for the fun of it—I think it's also quite interesting to document the path of discovery, with each decision or adjustment recorded by a different color. Even when I draw in my normal, monochromatic way, I never erase my "mistakes" until I've scribbled in a possible solution. It's easier to make a revision in either medium when you can see where you've been. That way, you don't make the same mistake twice (or three times).

Quite a few painters use line extensively throughout their work. Van Gogh is probably the most obvious example. He used a highly calligraphic hatching stroke in many of his paintings, while ironically, in many of his drawings, he frequently emulated the textural aspects of brushstrokes. Like many other painters, I often use lines as an expressive outlet or as a way to imply forms overlapping just as I do in my drawings. Even a mass-oriented artist such as John Singer Sargent resorted to a heavy use of outline in much of his mural work. Many muralists of the time, including Kenyon Cox and, more recently, Dean Cornwell, used line to make the imagery more recognizable from a distance, and along with Georges Rouault in his easel work, they often used distinct outlines in an avowed emulation of the leaden lines that support stained glass windows. In some ways, you might even say these dark lines serve more a color than a drawing end; they reinforce and enhance the hues within. Try to imagine the Hans Hoffmann self-portrait without the lines. It wouldn't work.

An abstract artist like Hoffmann had no fear of lines or drawing in general. Indeed, some of his teaching revolved around drawing from the model. Unfortunately, today many artists and critics decry the fusion of line and mass, and they vociferously argue against contaminating the purity of the painting impulse with drawing concerns. This reminds me of another unfortunate time in art history, when the Poussinistes, partisans of drawing and restraint, and the Rubenistes, soldiers of color and emotion, were at each other's throats. Each was adamant in its view. In fact, a popular teacher and artist of the Neoclassical movement, Baron Antoine-Jean Gros, committed suicide because he was unwilling to sacrifice his emotional Rubenist side to honor his patron and artistic father, Jacques-Louis David, a zealous Poussinist.

Today, most people can appreciate both of those camps and can see their eventual fusion in the traditional art of the late 19th and the 20th centuries. Think of how much potential was lost by these art wars. Life is too short to be deterred by another artist's dictums. Use lines when it serves your visual purposes, and use value masses when they are appropriate. Let someone else worry about the alleged aesthetic rules. Your job is to draw. If you stick to it, you will be as unstoppable as the team of line and mass.